Water Scarcity and Sustainable Water Management in India

Statement 1 is Incorrect: The Nadi-Sukta of the Rigveda (Rigveda 10.75) lists rivers like the Ganga, Yamuna, Sarasvati, and Sutlej from east to west. It reflects Holocene (historical/human) geography, not Pleistocene geological shifts, which occurred long before the Vedic period. Statement 2 is Incorrect: Robert Bruce Foote is known as the "Father of Indian Prehistory" for discovering India's first Paleolithic handaxe at Pallavaram (Tamil Nadu) in 1863. His explorations focused on stone-age archaeology in South India and Gujarat, not the geological mapping of the Sutlej and Yamuna river shifts. Statement 3 is Correct: The presence of closely related blind river dolphins (*Platanista gangetica minor* in the Indus and *Platanista gangetica gangetica* in the Ganga) in two completely separated basins is a primary biological basis for asserting that these river systems were once physically connected. Geologists propose that during the Pleistocene epoch, a single massive river (the Indo-Brahma or Shiwalik river) connected the modern Indus and Ganga basins. Tectonic uplift (such as the Delhi Ridge) later separated them into distinct drainage systems, causing river avulsion (shifting) where the Yamuna shifted east to join the Ganga and the Sutlej shifted west to join the Indus. Therefore, the correct option is D.

* Dhuandhar: This waterfall is located on the Narmada River, but the region is not Malwa. It is in Madhya Pradesh Mahakoshal region. Hence, pair 1 is incorrectly matched. * Hundru: This waterfall is indeed located on the Subarnarekha River within the Chota Nagpur Plateau. Hence, pair 2 is correctly matched. * Gersoppa (also known as Jog Falls): This waterfall is on the Sharavati River in the Western Ghats, not the Netravati River. Hence, pair 3 is incorrectly matched.

Statement 1 is Correct: During the Early Tertiary period, the western flank of the Peninsular block underwent tectonic subsidence (sinking). This led to its partial submergence beneath the sea, which formed the current submerged western coastline and disturbed the original symmetrical river pattern. Statement 2 is Correct: The Peninsular Block is an ancient, rigid, and stable landmass. It primarily consists of highly denuded relict and residual mountains (remnants of older mountains). Standard geographical texts explicitly list the Aravali, Nallamala, Javadi, Veliconda, Palkonda, and Mahendragiri hills as key examples of these residual ranges. Statement 3 is Incorrect: Because the Peninsular drainage system is much older than the Himalayan one, its rivers have reached maturity. They are characterized by broad, shallow, graded valleys with low gradients, rather than deep cuts. Deep gorges, V-shaped valleys, rapids, and waterfalls are indicative of youthful topography and active vertical erosion. These features are characteristic of the fast-flowing Himalayan river system, which cuts through young, weak, and flexible geological structures, unlike the stable Peninsular Block. Therefore, option B is the correct answer.

Statement 1 is correct: The Jhelum River originates from Verinag Spring in the Pir Panjal range and flows through Srinagar. It passes through Wular Lake, one of the largest freshwater lakes in India, before continuing westward toward Baramulla and entering Pakistan-occupied Kashmir. Statement 2 is not correct: Kolleru Lake lies between the Krishna and Godavari deltas in Andhra Pradesh but is not directly fed by either river. The lake receives inflows mainly from smaller rivers such as Budameru and Tammileru, which are distributaries of the Krishna and Godavari systems. Therefore, the Krishna River does not directly feed Kolleru Lake. Statement 3 is not correct: Kanwar Lake (also known as Kabartal) in Begusarai district of Bihar is an oxbow lake formed by the meandering of the Burhi Gandak River, not the main Gandak River. The Burhi Gandak (Old Gandak) is a separate channel originating near Someshwar Hills and flowing parallel to the Ganga.

Nagarhole National Park is located in the Kodagu and Mysore districts of Karnataka and is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. It is indeed located in the Cauvery basin. Papikonda National Park is not located in the Cauvery basin. It is actually located in the Godavari basin. Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve lies on the banks of the River Bhavani, a tributary of the River Cauvery in the foothills of the Eastern Ghats. So, it is located in the Cauvery basin. Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary: The Kabini river, a tributary of the Cauvery river, flows through the Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary. Hence, it is also located in the Cauvery basin. So, the correct answer includes Nagarhole National Park, Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve, and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary.