Ancient Literature & Textual Sources

* Korkai, Poompuhar, and Muchiri were well-known ancient port cities in South India. These cities were prominent centres of trade and maritime activities during ancient times, particularly during the Sangam period (300 BCE to 300 CE). * Please Note: In the Sangam Literature - the word ‘Puhar’ referred to harbour towns.

* Vattakirutal' as mentioned in Sangam's poems is best explained by a king defeated in a battle who commits ritual suicide by starving himself to death. * Sangam poems reflect a strong warrior culture in ancient Tamil society. Kings and warriors were expected to display courage and honour. * Defeat in battle was considered a significant dishonour. Hence, Vattakirutal allowed a defeated king to avoid the humiliation of capture by the enemy. * This form of suicide through starving was a ritualistic act, demonstrating the king's commitment to his honour and his unwillingness to compromise his dignity.

* Statement 1 is incorrect: Devichandraguptam is attributed to Vishakhadatta, a Sanskrit playwright. Bilhana was a poet who lived much later.  * Statement 2 is correct: Hammira-Mahakavya was written by Nayachandra Suri, a Jain scholar and poet. * Statement 3 is incorrect: Milinda-Panha is a dialogue between Buddhist philosopher Nagasena and Indo-Greek King Milinda, focusing on Buddhist concepts like non-self (anatta) and nirvana. Nagasena belonged to the Hinayana tradition, while Nagarjuna, often confused with him, was a Mahayana scholar. For clarity in UPSC, refer to the Milinda-Panha philosopher as Nagasena. * Statement 4 is correct: Nitivakyamrita was written by Somadeva Suri. Thus, statements 2 and 4 are correct.

Statement 1 is correct: Kautilya's Arthashastra describes various circumstances under which an individual could become a slave — including birth, purchase, capture in war, or judicial punishment for certain crimes or debts. For instance, a person might be enslaved to work off a fine imposed by a court for a criminal offense or debt, a category of slave referred to as Dandapranita. This form of slavery was generally for a fixed period, and the person could regain their freedom after serving their sentence or repaying their debt. Statement 2 is correct: The Arthashastra states that if a female slave bore her master a son, she would be legally free. This provision reflects an early recognition of limited rights and social mobility within the system of servitude. Statement 3 is correct: If a female slave’s son was fathered by her master, the child was entitled to the legal status of the master’s son, i.e., recognized as a legitimate heir with rights to inheritance, though interpretations suggest this depended on acknowledgment by the father. NOTE: UPSC official answer key says "Option B" is correct.

Statement 1 is incorrect. Aryadeva was a Buddhist philosopher, not a Jaina scholar. Aryadeva was a Mahayana Buddhist monk, a disciple of Nagarjuna and a Madhyamaka philosopher. He is known for his association with the Nalanda monastery. Statement 2 is correct. Dignaga was a Buddhist scholar known for his contributions to logic and philosophy. Dignaga's thought influenced later Buddhist philosophers like Dharmakirti and also Hindu thinkers of the Nyaya school. Statement 3 is correct. Nathamuni was a Vaishnava scholar who is credited with reviving the Sri Vaishnava tradition. Nathamuni collected and compiled the Naalayira Divya Prabandham

Sangam literature, which dates back to the Sangam period in ancient South India (c. 3rd century BCE to 3rd century CE), does indeed contain references to the social classification of Varna. The poems provide insights into the societal structure of that time, including the division of society into different social groups or Varnas. Therefore, option b is correct. Sangam poems often contain references to material culture, including descriptions of trade, agriculture, urban life, and everyday objects. Sangam's poems frequently depict warrior ethics, with many poems glorifying valour, bravery, and military prowess. Sangam literature includes references to various supernatural or magical forces, but these are typically presented as part of the cultural and religious beliefs of the time rather than being explicitly labelled as irrational.

Pair 1 is correctly matched. Dhauli is located in Odisha. Pair 2 is correctly matched. Erragudi or Yerragudi is located in Andhra Pradesh Pair 3 is incorrectly matched. Jaugada is located in Odisha. Pair 4 is incorrectly matched. Kalsi is located in Uttarakhand.

The Nettipakarana is a Buddhist text, specifically part of the Theravada Buddhist canon within the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka. It is not associated with Jainism. Conversely, the Parishishtaparvan is indeed a Jaina text. Authored by the 12th-century scholar Hemachandra, it reflects the rich tradition of Jain literature. The Avadanashataka, known for its collection of Hundred Legends, forms a part of the Sanskrit Buddhist literature and is not a Jain work. Lastly, the Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana (or Trishashti Shalaka Purusha Charitra) is a significant Jain text by Acharya Hemachandra, detailing the lives of 63 eminent figures in Jainism. NOTE: Anytime you come across the word ‘Avadana’, just remember that it belongs to Buddhism. Hence, this was an easy elimination question.

Statement 1 is incorrect. Both Dayabhaga and Mitakshara are the basic to the upper castes alone. Mitakshara school is followed in most of India while Dayabhaga is followed in Bengal. Statement 2 is correct. In the Dayabhaga system, sons obtain rights to property only at the death of the father, and in the Mitakshara school, the sons and grandsons have rights over his property even while he is alive. Statement 3 is incorrect. Both Dayabhaga and Mitakshara schools of Hindu law dealt with women’s property (stridhana). However, while the Mitakshara school imposed significant restrictions on women’s control and excluded them from coparcenary, the Dayabhaga school was relatively liberal, recognizing widows as heirs and granting greater powers over property.

Halbi, Ho and Kui are tribal languages. Halabi is an Indo-Aryan language spoken primarily in central India, notably in Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra, by the Halba tribe and other groups. Ho is an Austroasiatic (Munda) language spoken by the Ho people in Jharkhand/Odisha.
Kui (Kondh) is a Dravidian language primarily spoken by the Kandha tribe in Odisha.