Indian Hydrography & Water Bodies

Relationship 1 is Correct: Statement I outlines the core objective of the Sagarmala Programme, launched in 2015, which is port-led economic development through cost-effective and sustainable coastal infrastructure. Statement II provides empirical evidence of its success, such as the 118% growth in coastal shipping, a 700% surge in inland waterway cargo movement, and improved global port rankings (with nine Indian ports now in the global top 100). Thus, the tangible achievements in Statement II directly validate the effectiveness of the foundational strategies mentioned in Statement I. Relationship 2 is Correct: Statement III highlights the goals of Sagarmala 2.0, which focuses on smart ports, green shipping, and positioning India as a global maritime innovation hub aligned with the Viksit Bharat 2047 and Atmanirbhar Bharat visions. This acts as an evolutionary extension of the foundational infrastructure goals in Statement I, embedding them into a broader, future-oriented innovation framework rather than replacing them. Relationship 3 is Incorrect: Statement I does not contradict Statement III. The initial focus on traditional and sustainable coastal infrastructure in the original Sagarmala Programme serves as the necessary physical base upon which the modern innovation and technology-driven goals of Sagarmala 2.0 are built. The two phases are complementary and represent a progressive policy evolution, not a contradiction. Therefore, relationships 1 and 2 are correct, making Option B the correct choice.

Statement 1 is Correct: During the Early Tertiary period, the western flank of the Peninsular block underwent tectonic subsidence (sinking). This led to its partial submergence beneath the sea, which formed the current submerged western coastline and disturbed the original symmetrical river pattern. Statement 2 is Correct: The Peninsular Block is an ancient, rigid, and stable landmass. It primarily consists of highly denuded relict and residual mountains (remnants of older mountains). Standard geographical texts explicitly list the Aravali, Nallamala, Javadi, Veliconda, Palkonda, and Mahendragiri hills as key examples of these residual ranges. Statement 3 is Incorrect: Because the Peninsular drainage system is much older than the Himalayan one, its rivers have reached maturity. They are characterized by broad, shallow, graded valleys with low gradients, rather than deep cuts. Deep gorges, V-shaped valleys, rapids, and waterfalls are indicative of youthful topography and active vertical erosion. These features are characteristic of the fast-flowing Himalayan river system, which cuts through young, weak, and flexible geological structures, unlike the stable Peninsular Block. Therefore, option B is the correct answer.

The Sutlej perfectly matches all the given criteria. - Antecedent drainage system: Rivers like the Indus, Brahmaputra, and Sutlej are classic examples of antecedent drainage, as they existed before the Himalayan upliftment and maintained their courses by cutting deep gorges.
- Flows through three countries: The Sutlej flows through China (Tibet), India, and Pakistan. The Indus (China, India, Pakistan) and Brahmaputra (China, India, Bangladesh) also flow through three countries. The Teesta flows through only two (India and Bangladesh), making it incorrect.
- Originates in the Tibetan Plateau: The Sutlej originates from Rakshastal near Mansarovar in the Tibetan Plateau. It is a crucial source of irrigation, feeding major projects like the Bhakra-Nangal Dam and the Indira Gandhi Canal.
- Does not form distributaries: This is the defining characteristic that eliminates the other options. Both the Brahmaputra and the Indus form large deltas with multiple distributaries before emptying into the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, respectively. The Sutlej, on the other hand, is a tributary that merges with the Chenab River to form the Panjnad, which subsequently flows into the Indus River. It does not form distributaries. Therefore, the correct option is C.

Statement 1 is Incorrect: The Nadi-Sukta of the Rigveda (Rigveda 10.75) lists rivers like the Ganga, Yamuna, Sarasvati, and Sutlej from east to west. It reflects Holocene (historical/human) geography, not Pleistocene geological shifts, which occurred long before the Vedic period. Statement 2 is Incorrect: Robert Bruce Foote is known as the "Father of Indian Prehistory" for discovering India's first Paleolithic handaxe at Pallavaram (Tamil Nadu) in 1863. His explorations focused on stone-age archaeology in South India and Gujarat, not the geological mapping of the Sutlej and Yamuna river shifts. Statement 3 is Correct: The presence of closely related blind river dolphins (*Platanista gangetica minor* in the Indus and *Platanista gangetica gangetica* in the Ganga) in two completely separated basins is a primary biological basis for asserting that these river systems were once physically connected. Geologists propose that during the Pleistocene epoch, a single massive river (the Indo-Brahma or Shiwalik river) connected the modern Indus and Ganga basins. Tectonic uplift (such as the Delhi Ridge) later separated them into distinct drainage systems, causing river avulsion (shifting) where the Yamuna shifted east to join the Ganga and the Sutlej shifted west to join the Indus. Therefore, the correct option is D.

Statement 1 is Incorrect: 'Maitri Setu' (Friendship Bridge) is built over the Feni River, which forms a natural boundary between India and Bangladesh. However, it connects Sabroom in Tripura, India, with Ramgarh in Bangladesh, not the other way around. Statement 2 is Incorrect: The Jhulaghat suspension bridge connects India and Nepal, not Myanmar. It spans the Mahakali River (known as the Sharda River in India) and links the Pithoragarh district in Uttarakhand, India, with the Baitadi district in Nepal. Statement 3 is Correct: The Mechi Bridge connects India and Nepal over the Mechi River. It specifically links the Panitanki Bypass in West Bengal, India, with Kakarvitta in Nepal. It serves as a crucial link for cross-border trade and is the endpoint of Asian Highway 02 (AH02) in India. Therefore, only statement 3 is correct.

* Gomati: The Gomti River originates in the Central Himalayas and joins the Ganga near Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. * Ghaghara: The Ghaghara River, also known as the Ghagra-Rapti River, is the largest tributary of the Ganga. It originates in the Nepal Himalayas and joins the Ganga near Chhapra, Bihar. * Gandak: The Gandak River originates in the Nepal Himalayas and joins the Ganga near Patna, Bihar. * Kosi: The Kosi River, also known as the Koshi River, is known for its erratic behaviour and floods. It originates in the Nepal Himalayas and joins the Ganga near Katihar, Bihar. Therefore, the correct sequence is Gomati - Ghaghara - Gandak - Kosi.

* Dhuandhar: This waterfall is located on the Narmada River, but the region is not Malwa. It is in Madhya Pradesh Mahakoshal region. Hence, pair 1 is incorrectly matched. * Hundru: This waterfall is indeed located on the Subarnarekha River within the Chota Nagpur Plateau. Hence, pair 2 is correctly matched. * Gersoppa (also known as Jog Falls): This waterfall is on the Sharavati River in the Western Ghats, not the Netravati River. Hence, pair 3 is incorrectly matched.

* Statement 1 is correct. According to the United Nations World Water Development Report 2022, with an estimated 251 km3 annual withdrawal from an estimated 20 million wells and tube wells, India is the world's greatest groundwater user. This accounts for more than a quarter of the total groundwater extracted internationally. * Statement 2 is incorrect. India uses about 89% of this groundwater for irrigation. Major share of total groundwater extracted by India is utilised for irrigation purposes and not for drinking and sanitation purposes.

Statement 1 is correct: The Jhelum River originates from Verinag Spring in the Pir Panjal range and flows through Srinagar. It passes through Wular Lake, one of the largest freshwater lakes in India, before continuing westward toward Baramulla and entering Pakistan-occupied Kashmir. Statement 2 is not correct: Kolleru Lake lies between the Krishna and Godavari deltas in Andhra Pradesh but is not directly fed by either river. The lake receives inflows mainly from smaller rivers such as Budameru and Tammileru, which are distributaries of the Krishna and Godavari systems. Therefore, the Krishna River does not directly feed Kolleru Lake. Statement 3 is not correct: Kanwar Lake (also known as Kabartal) in Begusarai district of Bihar is an oxbow lake formed by the meandering of the Burhi Gandak River, not the main Gandak River. The Burhi Gandak (Old Gandak) is a separate channel originating near Someshwar Hills and flowing parallel to the Ganga.

* Statement 1 is incorrect: The Mundra Thermal Power Plant employs a closed-cycle induced draft circulating cooling water system that utilises seawater. Seawater is drawn from the Gulf of Kutch through robust glass reinforced pipes of significant diameter. In addition, purified seawater from a reverse osmosis plant is utilised by various supplementary systems. * Statement 2 is incorrect:  According to recent research by WRI (World Resources Institute), 40 percent of India's thermal power plants are situated in regions experiencing significant water stress. This poses a challenge as these plants rely on water for cooling purposes. The scarcity of water is already causing disruptions in electricity generation in these areas, with 14 out of India's 20 largest thermal utilities having experienced at least one shutdown between 2013 and 2016 due to water shortages. * Statement 3 is incorrect:  India has a total of 269 Thermal Power Plants, with 138 of them being owned by the public sector and the remaining 131 owned by the private sector.