Medieval Indian History & Dynasties

Statement 1 is Correct: The earliest known epigraphic evidence of the decimal place-value system in India is found in the Mankani copper-plate charter of Taralasvamin from Gujarat, which is dated to the Kalachuri year 346 (approximately 594–596 CE). Statement 2 is Correct: Although the conceptual origins of the place-value system and zero date back much earlier in literary and mathematical texts (such as those by Aryabhata), their use in everyday epigraphy was not immediate. The decimal place-value notation became a general, widespread feature in inscriptions all over India only by the ninth century CE (e.g., the 876 CE Chaturbhuj Temple inscription in Gwalior). Statement 3 is Correct: The Indian decimal place-value system spread rapidly to Southeast Asia. Epigraphists have found clear evidence of place-value numerals and the zero placeholder in Sanskrit and Sanskrit-influenced inscriptions in regions like Cambodia, Sumatra (Srivijaya), and Java dating as early as the seventh century CE (e.g., inscriptions dated to Saka years 605 and 606, corresponding to 683 and 684 CE). Therefore, all three statements are correct.

Statement 1 is Incorrect: Moidams (or Maidams) were not used as army fortresses. They are traditional mound-burial systems (tumuli) of the Tai-Ahom religion. Statement 2 is Incorrect: They did not serve as recreation centres for the Royals and Nobles. Statement 3 is Correct: Moidams served exclusively as the royal necropolis (burial grounds) for Ahom kings, queens, and nobles. The vaults enshrine the mortal remains of the deceased along with cherished objects, food, horses, elephants, and historically even attendants, reflecting Tai-Ahom cosmological beliefs about the afterlife. The most prominent concentration of these is located in Charaideo, Assam, which was the first capital of the Ahom kingdom. In July 2024, they were officially inscribed as India's 43rd UNESCO World Heritage Site. Statement 4 is Incorrect: They were not battle drill centres. Therefore, only statement 3 is correct.

The Araghatta was an ancient Indian irrigation device consisting of a large wheel with earthen pots fixed around its rim. As the wheel rotated—usually powered by animals or humans—the pots dipped into a water source and lifted water for irrigation. This mechanism is distinct from leather bags or simple buckets pulled by hand and represents early mechanical water-lifting technology.

The correct answer is C. Rajendra I (Chola). Rajendra Chola I, son of Rajaraja Chola I, led a famous naval expedition against the Srivijaya kingdom around 1025 CE. Srivijaya was a powerful maritime empire controlling the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, and nearby islands. Rajendra I’s campaign asserted Chola naval dominance in the region and secured control over important sea trade routes. The other rulers listed did not conduct campaigns against Srivijaya: * Amoghavarsha (Rashtrakuta) focused mainly on the Deccan region.
* Prataparudra (Kakatiya) ruled much later and was centered in the Deccan.
* Vishnuvardhana (Hoysala) focused on South Indian affairs.

The correct answer is A. Mahendravarman I. Mahendravarman I, a 7th-century Pallava king, was known for his literary talent and artistic patronage. He adopted the titles ‘Mattavilasa’ (lover of playful sport), ‘Vichitrachitta’ (curious-minded or inventive), and ‘Gunabharata’ (full of virtues). He also authored the Sanskrit play *Mattavilasa Prahasana*, reflecting his cultural contributions. The other rulers listed did not assume these titles.

Out of the four sites listed, two were included in the World Heritage List (WHS) in 2023: Shantiniketan and Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas. While Rani-ki-Vav was added to the WHS list in 2014 and the Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya in 2002.   * Shantiniketan: It was founded by Rabindranath Tagore's father, Maharshi Debendranath Tagore, in 1863 as a spiritual retreat. Shantiniketan was further expanded by Rabindranath Tagore into Visva-Bharati University in 1921, emphasizing the fusion of traditional Indian and modern Western education.  * Rani ki Vav: It was built in the 11th century CE by Queen Udayamati of the Solanki dynasty in Patan, Gujarat, as a memorial to her husband, King Bhimdev I. It is an exceptional example of stepwell design.  * Sacred Ensembles of Hoysalas: These were built during the 12th-13th centuries CE under the patronage of the Hoysala dynasty, centered in Karnataka. Hoysala temples are characterized by star-shaped platforms (jagatis). Some of the renowned temples are Chennakeshava Temple (Belur), Hoysaleswara Temple (Halebidu), and Keshava Temple (Somanathapura).  * Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya: It was built during the reign of Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE at the site where Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree.

* Krishnadeva Raya, the ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire (1509-1529), maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese. In 1510, with his permission, Alphonso de Albuquerque, the Portuguese governor, constructed a fort at Bhatkal, located in the Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka.   * Narasimha Saluva (reigned 1491–1505) was a ruler of the Saluva dynasty, which briefly controlled the Vijayanagara Empire. The Portuguese presence in India was only beginning to take root during his reign, and their focus was primarily on establishing trade rather than fortifications.   * Muhammad Shah III (reigned 1463–1482) was a ruler of the Bahmani Sultanate, a medieval kingdom in the Deccan region. By the time of his reign, the Portuguese had not yet arrived in India (their arrival occurred in 1498).   * Yusuf Adil Shah:** He was the founder of the Adil Shahi dynasty of Bijapur and ruled from 1489 to 1510. His engagements with the Portuguese were more conflictual, particularly over the control of Goa.

None of the listed dynasties established their kingdoms in the early eighth century AD (701-800 AD). 1. Hoysala - 1006 AD 
2. Gahadavala - 1026 AD 
3. Kakatiya - 1000 AD (established as a sub-feudatory, declared independence around the 10th century) 
4. Yadava - 850 AD (although some sources suggest a later date) Even the earliest of these estimates (Yadava dynasty) falls outside the early eighth-century range.
Please note: Early eighth century AD refers to the beginning of the medieval period. At that time, there were 3 major dynasties that established their empires in India - Palas, Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas.

* The ruler of medieval Gujarat who surrendered Diu to the Portuguese was Sultan Bahadur Shah. Diu was an important port city strategically located on the western coast of India, and its surrender to the Portuguese in 1535 marked a significant event in the history of Portuguese colonial expansion in India. * This was done to seek Portuguese military assistance against his rival Humayun, the Mughal emperor. As a result, the Portuguese established a strong foothold in Diu, turning it into a significant strategic and trading post.

* Devaraya I, around 1410 A.D., got a barrage constructed across the Tungabhadra river and commissioned a 24 km long aqueduct from the Tungabhadra river to the capital.  * The account provided by Nuniz gives details of the projects undertaken by Deva Raya I that brought prosperity to the Kingdom. Hence option (a) is the correct answer.