Gender Disparity in Higher Education and Employment
Social Justice & Development
- PYQs8
- Articles1
Background
This topic is crucial for GS1 (Society - role of women, social empowerment), GS2 (Welfare schemes, human resource development, government policies), and GS3 (Indian Economy - employment, inclusive growth). It reflects India's progress on SDG 4 (Quality Education) and SDG 5 (Gender Equality) and highlights persistent challenges in achieving inclusive development and leveraging the demographic dividend.
Gender disparity in India refers to the unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals based on their gender, manifesting across various socio-economic indicators including education, health, and employment. In the context of higher education and employment, it encompasses disparities in access, enrolment, choice of fields, completion rates, and subsequent integration into the formal workforce, as well as wage gaps and representation in leadership roles.
Facts & tables
- Female Enrolment Growth
- Female enrolment in higher education rose by 42% over the past decade (2014-15 to 2023-24), reaching 2.24 crore.
- Gender Parity Index (GPI)
- The Gender Parity Index (GPI) in higher education is 1.08, indicating more women entering higher education than men.
- STEM Field Concentration
- Women constitute 44% of STEM students but are concentrated in general sciences (54.6%) rather than engineering/technology (31.1%).
- Female Labor Force Participation Rate (FLFPR) and Wage Gap
- Female Labor Force Participation Rate (FLFPR) remains low, and women earn less than men in regular salaried jobs (₹18,353 vs ₹24,217 monthly average).
| Type | Reference |
|---|---|
| Conceptual area | Social Justice |
| Conceptual area | Human Resource Development |
| Conceptual area | Indian Economy (Employment) |
| Body | Role |
|---|---|
| All India Survey on Higher Education (AISHE) | Collects data, monitors trends |
| Ministry of Education | Formulates policies, oversees higher education |
Prelims angle
Prelims angle: Multi-statement analysis
Prelims angle: Factual recall
- Female higher education enrolment up 42% in a decade; GPI at 1.08.
- Women concentrated in general sciences, not engineering/tech, impacting future economic roles.
- Low FLFPR and significant gender wage gap persist despite educational gains.
- Disparity in female faculty and leadership roles in academia noted.
- Policy focus needed to link higher education to fruitful paid employment for women.
| Year | Framing tags |
|---|---|
| 2026 | Multi-statement analysis, Factual recall |
| 2026 | Multi-statement analysis, Factual recall |
| 2023 | Multi-statement analysis, Policy measures |
| 2019 | Multi-statement analysis, Factual recall |
| 2019 | Multi-statement analysis, Factual recall |
| 2017 | Factual recall, Institutional roles and functions |
| 2017 | Multi-statement analysis, Policy measures |
| 2016 | Multi-statement analysis, Policy measures |
Timeline
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Social Justice
Conceptual area
-
Human Resource Development
Conceptual area
-
Indian Economy (Employment)
Conceptual area
-
Prelims 2016
Multi-statement analysis, Policy measures
-
Prelims 2017
Factual recall, Institutional roles and functions
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Prelims 2017
Multi-statement analysis, Policy measures
-
Prelims 2019
Multi-statement analysis, Factual recall
-
Prelims 2019
Multi-statement analysis, Factual recall
-
Prelims 2023
Multi-statement analysis, Policy measures
-
Prelims 2026
Multi-statement analysis, Factual recall
-
Prelims 2026
Multi-statement analysis, Factual recall
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Over and above: On the All India Survey on Higher Education data
Despite significant gains in female higher education enrolment and a positive Gender Parity Index, India faces persistent gender disparities in employment outcomes, choice of academic fields, and representation in faculty and leadership, necessitating policy interventions to ensure equitable opportunities and economic empowerment for women.
See also
Past papers
2016–2026 · 8 questions
In the news
Over and above: On the All India Survey on Higher Education data
Despite significant gains in female higher education enrolment and a positive Gender Parity Index, India faces persistent gender disparities in employment outcomes, choice of academic fields, and representation in faculty and leadership, necessitating policy interventions to ensure equitable opportunities and economic empowerment for women.
Try these PYQs
Which of the following statements with regard to the persons with disabilities in India is/are correct ?
1. The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, an Act passed by the Parliament of India in 2018, mandates reservation in education and employment, places a legal duty on Governments to ensure accessibility and non-discrimination.
2. The Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan focuses on achieving universal accessibility for Persons with Disabilities across three key domains — built infrastructure, transport systems and information and communication technology.
3. The National Divyangjan Finance and Development Corporation (NDFDC) is a public sector organisation set up by the Ministry of Corporate Affairs as a not-for-profit company to promote entrepreneurship among Persons with Disabilities (PwDs).
Select the answer using the code given below :
Statement 1 is Incorrect: The Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) Act was passed by the Parliament of India in 2016, not 2018. It aligns with the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and places a legal obligation on governments to ensure non-discrimination and accessibility. It also mandates reservations for PwDs, such as increasing the quota to 4% in government employment and 5% in higher education. Statement 2 is Correct: The Sugamya Bharat Abhiyan (Accessible India Campaign) was launched in 2015 by the Department of Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities (DEPwD). It focuses on achieving universal accessibility for Persons with Disabilities across three key domains: built infrastructure (barrier-free public buildings), transport systems (accessible railways, airports, and roads), and information and communication technology (accessible government websites and digital ecosystems). Statement 3 is Incorrect: The National Divyangjan Finance and Development Corporation (NDFDC) is a Central Public Sector Undertaking registered as a not-for-profit company to provide concessional financial assistance to promote entrepreneurship, self-employment, and higher education among PwDs. However, it was set up under the aegis of the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, not the Ministry of Corporate Affairs. Therefore, the correct option is B.
Consider the following statements in relation to Janani Suraksha Yojana:
1. It is safe motherhood intervention of the State Health Departments.
2. Its objective is to reduce maternal and neonatal mortality among poor pregnant women.
3. It aims to promote institutional delivery among poor pregnant women.
4. Its objective includes providing public health facilities to sick infants up to one year of age.
How many of the statements given above are correct?
Statement 1 is incorrect: Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) is a 100% Centrally Sponsored Scheme under the National Health Mission (NHM). It is a central intervention implemented by states, not an intervention of the State Health Departments. Statement 2 is correct: The primary objective is to reduce maternal and neonatal mortality by encouraging safe, institutional births. Statement 3 is correct: The scheme provides a cash incentive to mothers to promote institutional delivery, particularly among those from BPL, SC, and ST households. Statement 4 is incorrect: While care for sick infants is a priority under the National Health Mission, the provision of free facilities for sick infants up to one year of age is specifically a feature of the Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (JSSK) launched in 2011. JSY, launched in 2005, is primarily a conditional cash transfer scheme for delivery.
Which of the following gives the ‘Global Gender Gap Index’ ranking to the countries of the world?
The Global Gender Gap Index is an annual report published by the World Economic Forum (WEF). It benchmarks progress towards gender parity by measuring the gap between women and men across four dimensions:
- Economic Participation and Opportunity
- Educational Attainment
- Health and Survival
- Political Empowerment
Which of the following statements is/are correct regarding the Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act, 2017?
1. Pregnant women are entitled for three months pre-delivery and three months post-delivery paid leave.
2. Enterprises with crèches must allow the mother minimum six crèche visits daily.
3. Women with two children get reduced entitlements.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
The Maternity Benefit (Amendment) Act 2017 has made several significant changes to benefit women employees - Paid maternity leave has been increased to 26 weeks from 12 weeks. - For women expecting after having 2 children, the leave duration remains at 12 weeks. - Establishments employing 50 or more employees must provide a crche facility, and women employees should be allowed to visit the facility 4 times during the day.
Consider the following statements about the provisions pertaining to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes in India :
1. Provisions regarding the administration of the Tribal Areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram are given in the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution of India.
2. Some tribes of India are entitled to exemption from paying Income Tax on certain incomes.
3. The Constitution of India provides for reservation of seats in Panchayats for women belonging to the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes.
Which one of the following conclusions based on the above statements is correct ?
Statement 1 is Incorrect: The Sixth Schedule (Article 244(2)) of the Indian Constitution specifically governs the administration of Tribal Areas in the four northeastern states of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram. The Fifth Schedule (Article 244(1)) applies to the administration and control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes in states other than these four. Statement 2 is Correct: Under Section 10(26) of the Income Tax Act, 1961, members of Scheduled Tribes residing in specified regions (including Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh, and Ladakh) are exempt from paying income tax on income generated from sources within those areas, as well as on dividends or interest on securities. Statement 3 is Correct: Article 243D of the Constitution mandates the reservation of seats in Panchayats for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs). Furthermore, Article 243D(2) explicitly requires that not less than one-third of the seats reserved for SCs and STs must be reserved for women belonging to the Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes. Since Statements 2 and 3 are correct, there are exactly two correct statements, which include Statement 2. Therefore, the correct conclusion is that there are two correct statements, that include statement 2.
Show 3 more PYQs
Which of the following are the objectives of ‘National Nutrition Mission’?
1. To create awareness relating to malnutrition among pregnant women and lactating mothers.
2. To reduce the incidence of anaemia among young children, adolescent girls and women.
3. To promote the consumption of millets, coarse cereals and unpolished rice.
4. To promote the consumption of poultry eggs.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
The National Nutrition Mission, also known as Poshan Abhiyaan, has several objectives. - The first objective is to create awareness relating to malnutrition among pregnant women and lactating mothers. - The second objective is to reduce the incidence of anaemia among young children, adolescent girls and women. These two objectives are clearly stated in the mission's goals. Hence, statements 1 & 2 are correct. However, the promotion of the consumption of millets, coarse cereals and unpolished rice, and the promotion of the consumption of poultry eggs are not explicitly stated as objectives of the mission. Hence, statement 3 & 4 are incorrect.
With reference to ‘Initiative for Nutritional Security through Intensive Millets Promotion’, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. This initiative aims to demonstrate the improved production and post-harvest technologies and to demonstrate value addition techniques, in an integrated manner, with a cluster approach.
2. Poor, small, marginal and tribal farmers have a larger stake in this scheme.
3. An important objective of the scheme is to encourage farmers of commercial crops to shift to millet cultivation by offering them free kits of critical inputs of nutrients and micro-irrigation equipment.
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Statement 1 is correct. The Initiative for Nutritional Security through Intensive Millets Promotion aims to demonstrate improved production and post-harvest technologies in an integrated manner with a cluster approach. Statement 2 is also correct. Millets are mainly grown in regions of low annual rainfall and poor arid soil. It is inadequate, small, marginal and tribal farmers, who cannot afford costly irrigation practices, depend on the cultivation of millets. Hence these farmers benefit from the scheme and have a larger stake in this scheme. Statement 3 is not correct. There is no such provision to encourage commercial crop farmers to shift to millet cultivation.
Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India :
1. PVTGs reside in 18 States and one Union Territory.
2. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status.
3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far.
4. Irular and Konda Reddi Tribes are included in the list of PVTGs.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
During the fourth Five-Year Plan, a sub-category was created within Scheduled Tribes, known as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups, to identify groups that are considered to be at a lower level of development. Statement 1 is correct: PVTGs are spread over 18 states and one Union Territory (Andaman & Nicobar Islands) in India. Statement 2 is correct: The criteria for determining PVTG status include a pre-agricultural level of technology, a stagnant or declining population, extremely low literacy, and a subsistence-level of economy. Statement 3 is incorrect: As of now, there are 75 PVTGs officially notified in the country, not 95. Statement 4 is correct: Both Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs. So, the correct statements are 1, 2, and 4.