Editorials thehindu.com

Cyber warfare is outpacing global legal accountability

23 May 2026 Source

Exam Summary

The article highlights the increasing integration of cyber operations into modern conflicts, as seen in recent tensions involving the US, Israel, and Iran. It discusses the significant challenges in applying existing international law to cyber warfare, primarily due to difficulties in attributing attacks to states, establishing a legal threshold for the 'use of force' in cyberspace, the absence of appropriate international judicial forums, issues of sovereign immunity, and the complexity of technical evidence. The piece argues that despite the applicability of principles like the prohibition on the use of force under the UN Charter and state responsibility, practical hurdles lead to a widening gap between the occurrence of damaging cyber incidents and legal accountability. It concludes by emphasizing India's growing vulnerability and stake in actively shaping international norms and regulations for responsible behavior in cyberspace.

GS Paper 2 (International Relations, International Institutions, Governance aspects of international law) and GS Paper 3 (Science & Technology, Cyber Security).

UPSC concepts in this story

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Cyber Warfare and International Legal Frameworks

The increasing use of cyber operations in modern conflicts poses significant challenges to existing international legal frameworks, particularly regarding th...

International Relations 12 PYQs 1 developments

Exam Themes

International Relations Science & Technology Geopolitics & International Conflicts Emerging Information Technologies

Prelims Takeaways

  • Cyber operations are increasingly used alongside conventional military actions in modern conflicts.
  • International law, including UN Charter Article 2(4) and principles of state responsibility, applies in principle to cyberspace.
  • Key challenges in applying international law to cyber warfare include difficulty in attribution, establishing the threshold for 'use of force', lack of appropriate international forums (e.g., ICJ requires state consent), sovereign immunity, and complexity of evidence.
  • The Budapest Convention on Cybercrime and the UN Convention against Cybercrime primarily address cybercrime and law enforcement, not state responsibility in geopolitical conflicts.
  • India's increasing reliance on digital infrastructure makes it vulnerable and gives it a significant stake in shaping international cyber norms and regulations.

Elimination Traps

  • Assuming existing international conventions (like Budapest Convention) fully address state-sponsored cyber warfare.
  • Confusing cybercrime with state-sponsored cyber operations in the context of international law.
  • Underestimating the legal and technical complexities of attribution and evidence in cyber incidents.

Static Concepts

  • Cyber warfare
  • International Law
  • State Responsibility
  • Sovereign Immunity
  • Attribution (in international law)
  • Use of Force (under UN Charter Article 2(4))
  • Digital infrastructure

Probable Question Areas

Question areas
  • International legal frameworks governing cyber warfare and their limitations.
Question areas
  • Key challenges in ensuring accountability for state-sponsored cyber attacks.
Question areas
  • Role of international bodies (UN, ICJ) and conventions (Budapest, UN Cybercrime) in regulating cyberspace.
Question areas
  • India's strategic interests and role in global cyber governance and resilience.
Question areas
  • Concepts like 'attribution', 'state responsibility', and 'sovereign immunity' in the context of cyber warfare.
Conceptual Recurrence

Related Prelims PYQs

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UPSC Prelims 2023 International Relations

Consider the following statements :
Statement-I: Recently, the United States of America (USA) and the European Union (EU) have launched the 'Trade and Technology Council'
Statement-II: The USA and the EU claim that through this they are trying to begin technological progress and physical productivity under their control.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statement?

  1. A. Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I
  2. B. Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I
  3. C. Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
  4. D. Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct
Explanation
Correct answer
C. Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect

* Statement 1 is correct: Trade and Technology Council was launched by the the United States of America and the European Union during the EU-US Summit on 15 June 2021 in Brussels.  * Statement 2 is incorrect: Trade and Technology council, the USA and EU does not aim to bring technological progress and physical productivity under their control. Rather the initiative intends to promote pooling of digital resources such as AI models and computing power, and make them available to partner countries to address challenges in areas such as climate change and extreme weather, healthcare or smart agriculture.

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UPSC Prelims 2025 International Relations

Consider the following statements regarding AI Action Summit held in Grand Palais, Paris in February 2025:

I. Co-chaired with India, the event builds on the advances made at the Bletchley Park Summit held in 2023 and the Seoul Summit held in 2024.
II. Along with other countries, US and UK also signed the declaration on inclusive and sustainable AI.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. A. I only
  2. B. II only
  3. C. Both I and II
  4. D. Neither I nor II
Explanation
Correct answer
A. I only

✅ Statement I: Correct
*India co-chaired the AI Action Summit in Paris (Feb 2025), continuing efforts from the Bletchley Park (UK, 2023) and Seoul (South Korea, 2024) Summits on AI governance.* ❌ Statement II: Incorrect
*The joint statement on ‘Inclusive and Sustainable AI’ was signed by 58 countries including India and China, but the US and UK did not sign due to concerns about overregulation.* Correct Answer: Only Statement I is correct.

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In India, why are some nuclear reactors kept under “IAEA Safeguards” while others are not?

  1. A. Some use uranium and other use thorium
  2. B. Some use imported uranium and others use domestic supplies
  3. C. Some are operated by foreign enterprises and other are operated by domestic enterprises
  4. D. Some are State-owned and others are privately-owned
Explanation
Correct answer
B. Some use imported uranium and others use domestic supplies

IAEA safeguards are a set of technical safeguards applied by the IAEA to independently verify any nuclear facilities to check if it is not misused or deviated from peaceful uses. IAEA Safeguards are meant to understand if imported/enriched uranium is not used for non-peaceful purposes. New reactors under IAEA safeguards The decision will be based on the source of uranium.

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UPSC Prelims 2023 International Relations

Consider the following statements about G-20:
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2. Digital public infrastructure is one of India's G-20 priorities.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. A. 1 only
  2. B. 2 only
  3. C. Both 1 and 2
  4. D. Neither 1 nor 2
Explanation
Correct answer
C. Both 1 and 2

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UPSC Prelims 2025 International Relations

India is one of the founding members of the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC), a multimodal transportation corridor, which will connect

  1. A. India to Central Asia to Europe via Iran
  2. B. India to Central Asia via China
  3. C. India to South-East Asia through Bangladesh and Myanmar
  4. D. India to Europe through Azerbaijan
Explanation
Correct answer
A. India to Central Asia to Europe via Iran

The International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) is a multimodal transport network aimed at boosting trade between India, Central Asia, Russia, and Europe, using a combination of sea, rail, and road routes via Iran. The corridor connects Mumbai → Bandar Abbas (Iran) → Azerbaijan → Russia → Europe, with access to Central Asia.

International Relations Geopolitics & International Conflicts
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Consider the following statements:
Statement-I :Israel has established diplomatic relations with some Arab States.
Statement-II :The 'Arab Peace Initiative' Mediated by Saudi Arabia was signed by Israel and Arab League.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

  1. A. Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement- II is the correct explanation for Statement-I
  2. B. Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement- II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I
  3. C. Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
  4. D. Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct
Explanation
Correct answer
C. Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect

* Statement I is correct: Several Arab states, including Egypt, Jordan, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Morocco, and Sudan, have established diplomatic relations with Israel. * Statement II is incorrect: The Arab Peace Initiative, mediated by Saudi Arabia, was endorsed by the Arab League but not signed by Israel. It outlines a path towards peace in exchange for Israeli concessions, but Israel has not formally accepted all its terms.

International Relations Geopolitics & International Conflicts
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With reference to the “United Nations Credentials Committee”, consider the following statements:
1. It is a committee set up by the UN Security Council and works under its supervision.
2. It traditionally meets in March, June and September every year.
3. It assesses the credentials of all UN members before submitting a report to the General Assembly for approval.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. A. 3 only
  2. B. 1 and 3
  3. C. 2 and 3
  4. D. 1 and 2
Explanation
Correct answer
A. 3 only

Statement 1 is incorrect. The United Nations Credentials Committee is a committee of the United Nations General Assembly. Statement 2 is incorrect. A Credentials Committee is appointed at the beginning of each regular session of the General Assembly. It consists of nine members, who are appointed by the General Assembly on the proposal of the President. Statement 3 is correct. The Committee reports to the Assembly on the credentials of representatives. The Committee is mandated to examine the credentials of representatives of Member States and to report to the General Assembly thereon (Rule 28 of the Rules of Procedure of the General Assembly). The credentials of representatives and the names of members of the delegation of each Member State are submitted to the Secretary-General and are issued either by the Head of the State or Government or by the Minister for Foreign Affairs (Rule 27 of the Rules of Procedure of the General Assembly).

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1. The UN General Assembly can grant observer status to the non-member States.
2. Inter-governmental organisations can seek observer status in the UN General Assembly.
3. Permanent Observers in the UN General Assembly can maintain missions at the UN headquarters.

Which of the statements given above are correct ?

  1. A. 1 and 2 only
  2. B. 2 and 3 only
  3. C. 1 and 3 only
  4. D. 1, 2 and 3
Explanation
Correct answer
D. 1, 2 and 3

Statement 1 is correct. The United Nations General Assembly may grant non-member states, international organizations, and other entities Permanent Observer Status. Statement 2 is correct. The General Assembly decided that observer status would be confined to States and intergovernmental organizations whose activities cover matters of interest to the Assembly. Statement 3 is correct. Permanent Observers may participate in the sessions and workings of the General Assembly and maintain missions at the UN Headquarters.

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Consider the following statements with regard to BRICS:

I. 16th BRICS Summit was held under the Chairship of Russia in Kazan.
II. Indonesia has become a full member of BRICS.
III. The theme of the 16th BRICS Summit was Strengthening Multiculturalism for Just Global Development and Security.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

  1. A. I and II
  2. B. II and III
  3. C. I and III
  4. D. I only
Explanation
Correct answer
A. I and II

✅ Statement I: Correct
*The 16th BRICS Summit was held in Kazan, Russia, in October 2024 under Russia’s chairship. Russia held the rotating presidency in 2024, and the summit took place from October 22-24 in Kazan, the capital of Tatarstan.* ✅ Statement II: Correct
*Indonesia became a full member of BRICS in January 2025, becoming the first Southeast Asian nation and the 10th member of the bloc.* ❌ Statement III: Incorrect
*The theme of the 16th BRICS Summit is "Strengthening Multilateralism for Just Global Development and Security." The statement used "Multiculturalism" instead of "Multilateralism," making it incorrect for this question.* Therefore, only statements I and II are correct.

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The term "two-state solution" is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of -

  1. A. China
  2. B. Israel
  3. C. Iraq
  4. D. Yemen
Explanation
Correct answer
B. Israel

The Two-State Solution is used in the context of the Israel-Palestine issue. It envisages an independent State of Palestine alongside the State of Israel west of the Jordan River.

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