International Law
International law, the framework for global order, is facing significant erosion. Powerful states' violations of core principles (e.g., use of force, maritim...
International law, ‘optional’ for powerful states
The article argues that public international law is increasingly becoming 'optional' for powerful states, leading to the erosion of a rules-based international order. It cites numerous instances of violations across various domains, including the use of force (e.g., Russia-Ukraine, US-Iraq), maritime law (e.g., China in South China Sea), international humanitarian law (e.g., Syria, Yemen), human rights treaties (e.g., China-Uyghurs, Israel-Gaza), arms control regimes, and environmental law (e.g., Paris Agreement commitments). The author attributes this impunity to the paralysis of multilateral institutions like the UN Security Council and the International Criminal Court, emphasizing that power, not principle, is determining outcomes, with severe consequences for global peace and stability.
Syllabus mapping
Prelims takeaways
- Understand the core principles of the UN Charter, especially regarding the prohibition on the use of force and the guarantee of sovereignty and territorial integrity.
- Familiarize with key international treaties and conventions mentioned UNCLOS (and its provisions on Exclusive Economic Zones, freedom of navigation), Geneva Conventions, Paris Agreement, INF Treaty, Open Skies Treaty, New START, JCPOA.
- Know the roles and limitations of international bodies like the UN Security Council, International Criminal Court, and Permanent Court of Arbitration.
- Identify major geopolitical hotspots and conflicts mentioned South China Sea (China's nine-dash line claim), Strait of Hormuz, Nagorno-Karabakh, Tigray conflict, Russia-Ukraine war, Israel-Gaza conflict, Uyghur issue in Xinjiang, Rohingya crisis.
- Differentiate between international humanitarian law and human rights law, and understand concepts like crimes against humanity and genocide.
- Recognize the challenges to the 'rules-based international order' and the factors contributing to the erosion of international law.
Elimination traps
- Confusing the specific provisions of different international treaties (e.g., UNCLOS vs. UN Charter).
- Misattributing specific violations to incorrect states or actors.
- Overlooking the distinction between state and non-state actors in committing atrocities or violations.
Static concepts
- Public international law
- Rules-based order
- Sovereignty
- Territorial integrity
- Freedom of navigation
- International humanitarian law
- Crimes against humanity
- Genocide
- Arms control regimes
- Multilateral institutions
- Accountability mechanisms
Probable question areas
Question areas
- Questions on the mandate and effectiveness of the UN Security Council and the International Criminal Court.
Question areas
- Specific provisions of UNCLOS, particularly concerning maritime disputes and freedom of navigation, with a focus on the South China Sea.
Question areas
- The implications of the collapse or erosion of major arms control treaties.
Question areas
- The concept of 'rules-based international order' and its contemporary challenges.
Question areas
- Geographical locations of recent conflicts and their international law implications (e.g., Nagorno-Karabakh, Tigray, Strait of Hormuz).
UPSC concepts in this story
Durable syllabus ideas for revision — not article memory.
Previous year Prelims questions on overlapping themes and topics.
Consider the following pairs : Area of conflict mentioned in news Country where it is located
1. Donbas : Syria
2. Kachin : Ethiopia
3. Tigray : North Yemen
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
Explanation
Correct answer
D. None
* The Donbas is a historical, cultural, and economic region in eastern Ukraine. It has two heavily industrialised regions of Donetsk and Luhansk which were occupied by Russian forces last year. Hence, pair 1 is not correctly matched. * Kachin State is the northernmost state of Myanmar. In 2022, Myanmar military air * strikes reportedly killed dozens of people including civilians at a concert in Kachin State. Hence, pair 2 is not correctly matched. * Tigray is Ethiopia's northernmost region. The region is at the centre of an ongoing civil conflict involving ethno-regional militias, the federal government, and the Eritrean military that has attracted the concern of humanitarian groups and external actors since November 2020. In October 2022, the first formal African Union-led peace talks between an Ethiopian government team and Tigray forces happened in South Africa. Hence, pair 3 is not correctly matched.
International Relations
Current Affairs
Geopolitics & International Conflicts
With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements:
1. A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention.
2. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea.
3. The Exclusive Economic Zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea in measure.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Explanation
Correct answer
D. 1, 2 and 3
Statement 1 is correct: UNCLOS allows coastal states to define the breadth of their territorial sea up to a limit of 12 nautical miles, measured from a baseline established according to the Convention. Statement 2 is correct: UNCLOS guarantees the right of innocent passage for ships of all states, including coastal and land-locked nations, through the territorial sea of another state. Innocent passage refers to non-threatening travel that doesn't harm the coastal state's security or interests. Statement 3 is correct: UNCLOS sets the limit of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) at 200 nautical miles from the baseline used to measure the territorial sea. The EEZ grants the coastal state exclusive rights to explore, exploit, conserve and manage resources (living and non-living) within the zone. Hence, all three statements about the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) are correct.
International Relations
Geography
Geopolitics & International Conflicts
Physical & Regional Geography
Very recently, in which of the following countries have lakhs of people either suffered from severe famine/acute malnutrition or died due to starvation caused by war/ethnic conflicts?
Explanation
Correct answer
D. Yemen and South Sudan
The correct answer is Yemen and South Sudan. Yemen and South Sudan are two countries in which lakhs of people suffered from acute famine/malnutrition and died due to starvation caused by war or conflicts. These countries are facing a humanitarian crisis due to famine and civil war.
Current Affairs
International Relations
Geopolitics & International Conflicts
India is one of the founding members of the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC), a multimodal transportation corridor, which will connect
Explanation
Correct answer
A. India to Central Asia to Europe via Iran
The International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) is a multimodal transport network aimed at boosting trade between India, Central Asia, Russia, and Europe, using a combination of sea, rail, and road routes via Iran. The corridor connects Mumbai → Bandar Abbas (Iran) → Azerbaijan → Russia → Europe, with access to Central Asia.
International Relations
Geopolitics & International Conflicts
Consider the following statements with regard to BRICS:
I. 16th BRICS Summit was held under the Chairship of Russia in Kazan.
II. Indonesia has become a full member of BRICS.
III. The theme of the 16th BRICS Summit was Strengthening Multiculturalism for Just Global Development and Security.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Explanation
Correct answer
A. I and II
✅ Statement I: Correct
*The 16th BRICS Summit was held in Kazan, Russia, in October 2024 under Russia’s chairship. Russia held the rotating presidency in 2024, and the summit took place from October 22-24 in Kazan, the capital of Tatarstan.* ✅ Statement II: Correct
*Indonesia became a full member of BRICS in January 2025, becoming the first Southeast Asian nation and the 10th member of the bloc.* ❌ Statement III: Incorrect
*The theme of the 16th BRICS Summit is "Strengthening Multilateralism for Just Global Development and Security." The statement used "Multiculturalism" instead of "Multilateralism," making it incorrect for this question.* Therefore, only statements I and II are correct.
International Relations
Geopolitics & International Conflicts
The term "two-state solution" is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of -
Explanation
Correct answer
B. Israel
The Two-State Solution is used in the context of the Israel-Palestine issue. It envisages an independent State of Palestine alongside the State of Israel west of the Jordan River.
International Relations
Current Affairs
Geopolitics & International Conflicts
Consider the following statements:
Statement-I :Israel has established diplomatic relations with some Arab States.
Statement-II :The 'Arab Peace Initiative' Mediated by Saudi Arabia was signed by Israel and Arab League.
Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?
Explanation
Correct answer
C. Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect
* Statement I is correct: Several Arab states, including Egypt, Jordan, United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Morocco, and Sudan, have established diplomatic relations with Israel. * Statement II is incorrect: The Arab Peace Initiative, mediated by Saudi Arabia, was endorsed by the Arab League but not signed by Israel. It outlines a path towards peace in exchange for Israeli concessions, but Israel has not formally accepted all its terms.
International Relations
Geopolitics & International Conflicts
In the recent years Chad, Guinea, Mali and Sudan caught the international attention for which one of the following reasons common to all of them?
Explanation
Correct answer
D. Successful coups
* Successful Coups There have been several military coups in these countries in recent years - Chad (2021) - Guinea (2021) - Mali (2020, 2021) - Sudan (2019) * Military coups often lead to political instability, international concern about human rights, and potential disruption to trade and regional security.
International Relations
Geopolitics & International Conflicts
The area known as ‘Golan Heights’ sometimes appears in the news in the context of the events related to:
Explanation
Correct answer
B. Middle East
The correct answer is the Middle East. The Golan Heights is a hilly, 1,200 sq-km rocky plateau in south-western Syria in the Middle East region overlooking Lebanon, Syria, and the Jordan Valley. The Golan was Syrian territory until 1967 when Israel occupied it in the closing stages of the Six-Day War.
International Relations
Geopolitics & International Conflicts
Consider the following pairs :
Country | Reason for being in the news|
|- | -|
|1. Argentina | Worst economic crisis|
|2. Sudan | War between the country's regular army and paramilitary forces|
|3. Turkey | Rescinded its membership of NATO|
How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
Explanation
Correct answer
B. Only two pairs
* Argentina - Worst economic crisis: Correct. Argentina has been facing a severe economic crisis for a while, marked by high inflation, debt, and poverty. * Sudan - War between the country's regular army and paramilitary forces: Correct. Sudan has been engulfed in a violent conflict between the Sudanese Armed Forces and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces. * Turkey - Rescinded its membership of NATO: Incorrect. Turkey has not rescinded its membership of NATO. While there have been tensions between Turkey and other NATO members, it remains a member. _Therefore, only two out of the three pairs are correctly matched._
International Relations
Current Affairs
Geopolitics & International Conflicts
Macroeconomic Trends & Inflation
Previous year Mains questions mapped to overlapping GS syllabus topics.
"The reform process in the United Nations remains unresolved, because of the delicate imbalance of East and West and entanglement of the USA vs. Russo-Chinese alliance." Examine and critically evaluate the East-West policy confrontations in this regard.
Bilateral, regional and global groupings involving India
Important International institutions, agencies and fora
View Mains PYQ
"Energy security constitutes the dominant kingpin of India's foreign policy, and is linked with India's overarching influence in Middle Eastern countries." How would you integrate energy security with India's foreign policy trajectories in the coming years?
Bilateral, regional and global groupings involving India
Important International institutions, agencies and fora
View Mains PYQ
Examine the evolving pattern of Centre-State financial relations in the context of planned development in India. How far have the recent reforms impacted the fiscal federalism in India?
Union and States — federal structure and devolution
View Mains PYQ
"With the waning of globalization, post-Cold War world is becoming a site of sovereign nationalism." Elucidate.
Bilateral, regional and global groupings involving India
Important International institutions, agencies and fora
View Mains PYQ
India-Africa digital partnership is achieving mutual respect, co-development and long-term institutional partnerships. Elaborate.
Bilateral, regional and global groupings involving India
View Mains PYQ
Discuss the nature of Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly after the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganization Act, 2019. Briefly describe the powers and functions of the Assembly of the Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir.
Union and States — federal structure and devolution
View Mains PYQ